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<title>Strong programme</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Strong programme</span></span>

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<p>The <b>strong programme</b> or <b>strong sociology</b> is a variety of the <a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">sociology of scientific knowledge</a> (SSK) particularly associated with <a href="David_Bloor" title="David Bloor">David Bloor</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="S._Barry_Barnes" title="S. Barry Barnes">Barry Barnes</a>, <a href="Harry_Collins" title="Harry Collins">Harry Collins</a>, <a href="Donald_Angus_MacKenzie" class="mw-redirect" title="Donald Angus MacKenzie">Donald A. MacKenzie</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and John Henry. The strong programme's influence on <a href="Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">science and technology studies</a> is credited as being unparalleled (<a href="Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a> 1999). The largely <a href="University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>-based school of thought aims to illustrate how the existence of a <a href="Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">scientific community</a>, bound together by allegiance to a shared <a href="Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigm</a>, is a prerequisite for normal scientific activity.

</p><p>The strong programme is a reaction against "weak" sociologies of science, which restricted the application of sociology to "failed" or "false" theories, such as <a href="Phrenology" title="Phrenology">phrenology</a>. Failed theories would be explained by citing the researchers' <a href="Bias" title="Bias">biases</a>, such as covert political or economic interests. Sociology would be only marginally relevant to successful theories, which succeeded because they had revealed a fact of nature. The strong programme proposed that both "true" and "false" <a href="Scientific_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific theories">scientific theories</a> should be treated the same way. Both are caused by social factors or conditions, such as cultural context and <a href="Self-interest" title="Self-interest">self-interest</a>. All human knowledge, as something that exists in the human cognition, must contain some social components in its formation process.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Characteristics">Characteristics</h2></div>

<p>As formulated by David Bloor,<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the strong programme has four indispensable components:

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<ol><li><i><a href="Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></i>: it examines the conditions (psychological, social, and cultural) that bring about claims to a certain kind of knowledge.</li>

<li><i><a href="Impartiality" title="Impartiality">Impartiality</a></i>: it examines successful as well as unsuccessful knowledge claims.</li>

<li><i>Symmetry</i>: the same types of explanations are used for successful and unsuccessful knowledge claims alike.</li>

<li><i><a href="Reflexive_relation" title="Reflexive relation">Reflexivity</a></i>: it must be applicable to sociology itself.</li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<p>Because the strong programme originated at the 'Science Studies Unit,' <a href="University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>, it is sometimes termed the <a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Edinburgh School</a>. However, there is also a Bath School associated with <a href="Harry_Collins" title="Harry Collins">Harry Collins</a> that makes similar proposals. In contrast to the Edinburgh School, which emphasizes historical approaches, the Bath School emphasizes microsocial studies of laboratories and experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Bath school, however, does depart from the strong programme on some fundamental issues. In the <a href="Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">social construction of technology</a> (SCOT) approach developed by Collins' student <a href="Trevor_Pinch" title="Trevor Pinch">Trevor Pinch</a>, as well as by the Dutch sociologist <a href="Wiebe_Bijker" title="Wiebe Bijker">Wiebe Bijker</a>, the strong programme was extended to technology. There are SSK-influenced scholars working in <a href="Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">science and technology studies</a> programs throughout the world.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Criticism">Criticism</h2></div>

<p>In order to study scientific knowledge from a sociological point of view, the strong programme has adhered to a form of radical <a href="Relativism" title="Relativism">relativism</a>. In other words, it argues that – in the social study of institutionalised beliefs about "<a href="Truth" title="Truth">truth</a>" – it would be unwise to use "truth" as an explanatory resource. To do so would (according to the relativist view) include the answer as part of the question (Barnes 1992), and propound a "<a href="Whig_history" title="Whig history">whiggish</a>" approach towards the study of history – a narrative of human history as an inevitable march towards truth and enlightenment.

</p><p>Physicists <a href="Alan_Sokal" title="Alan Sokal">Alan Sokal</a> and <a href="Jean_Bricmont" title="Jean Bricmont">Jean Bricmont</a> wrote a scathing critique <a href="Fashionable_Nonsense" title="Fashionable Nonsense">Fashionable Nonsense</a> of the Strong Programme in 1997 and its reliance on <a href="Social_constructionism" title="Social constructionism">social constructionism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In their view postmodernists on the far left attempted to recast scientific controversy as a political struggle between good (progressivism) and bad (conservatism), a form of Marxist class struggle, one that leads to a dead end that obscures, rather than enlightens.<sup id="cite_ref-Bricmont_And_Sokal_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bricmont_And_Sokal-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They assert that the main error of the "Strong Program" is to ignore that scientists primarily use nature and mathematicians logic, not social pressures, to validate their findings.<sup id="cite_ref-Bricmont_And_Sokal_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bricmont_And_Sokal-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 85–87, 90">: 85–87, 90 </span></sup> They demonstrated that academics such as <a href="Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Feyerabend</a>, <a href="Bruno_Latour" title="Bruno Latour">Latour</a>, <a href="Jacques_Lacan" title="Jacques Lacan">Lacan</a>, <a href="Luce_Irigaray" title="Luce Irigaray">Irigaray</a>, <a href="Julia_Kristeva" title="Julia Kristeva">Kristeva</a> (Ch3) and <a href="Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a> regularly attempted to apply nonsensical metaphor from the physical sciences and mathematics to bolster their theories of how scientific agreements were achieved.<sup id="cite_ref-Bricmont_And_Sokal_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bricmont_And_Sokal-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Pages: 78–85, 92–99, 27–37, 38-49 106-123, 154–168">: 78–85, 92–99, 27–37, 38-49 106-123, 154–168 </span></sup>

</p><p>Markus Seidel attacks the main arguments – <a href="Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">underdetermination</a> and norm-circularity – provided by Strong Programme proponents for their relativism.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been argued that the strong programme has incited <a href="Climate_denial" class="mw-redirect" title="Climate denial">climate denial</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div>

<li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Bloor, "The strengths of the strong programme." <i>Scientific rationality: The sociological turn</i> (Springer Netherlands, 1984) pp. 75-94.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Donald MacKenzie, "Notes on the science and social relations debate." <i>Capital & Class</i> 5.2 (1981): 47-60.</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">David Bloor, <i>Knowledge and Social Imagery</i> (1976)</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harry M. Collins, "Introduction: Stages in the empirical programme of relativism." <i>Social studies of science</i> (1981): 3-10. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/284733">in JSTOR</a></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Wiebe E. Bijker, et al. <i>The social construction of technological systems: New directions in the sociology and history of technology</i> (MIT press, 2012)</span>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFGalaty2022" class="citation book cs1">Galaty, David (2022). <i>Modern European Intellectual History: Individuals, Groupings and Technological Change 1800-2000</i>. Bloomsbury Academic. p. 336. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-1-350-10539-3</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-Bricmont_And_Sokal-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bricmont_And_Sokal_7-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bricmont_And_Sokal_7-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bricmont_And_Sokal_7-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFBricmontSokal1998" class="citation book cs1">Bricmont, jean; Sokal, Alan (1998). <i>Fashionable Nonsense: Postmodern Intellectuals Abuse of Science</i>. New York, NY: Picador. pp. <span class="nowrap">107–</span>200, <span class="nowrap">206–</span>207. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>0-312-19545-1</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Markus Seidel <i>Epistemic Relativism. A Constructive Critique</i>, 2014, Palgrave Macmillan</span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHansson2020" class="citation journal cs1">Hansson, Sven Ove (29 August 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13194-020-00305-w">"Social constructionism and climate science denial"</a>. <i>European Journal for Philosophy of Science</i>. <b>10</b> (3): 37. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs13194-020-00305-w">10.1007/s13194-020-00305-w</a></span>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1879-4920">1879-4920</a>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<ul><li><a href="Sociology_of_Scientific_Knowledge" class="mw-redirect" title="Sociology of Scientific Knowledge">Sociology of Scientific Knowledge</a> – Study of science as a social activity<span style="display:none" class="category-annotation-with-redirected-description">Pages displaying short descriptions of redirect targets</span></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a> – Branch of philosophy</li>

<li><a href="Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a> – Research area analyzing scientific expertise</li>

<li><a href="Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a> – Sociological theory of knowledge</li>

<li><a href="Sokal_affair" title="Sokal affair">Sokal affair</a> – 1996 scholarly publishing sting accepted by an academic journal</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div>

<ul><li>Barnes, B. (1977). <i>Interests and the Growth of Knowledge</i>. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul.</li>

<li>Barnes, B. (1982). <i>T. S. Kuhn and Social Science</i>. London: Macmillan.</li>

<li>Barnes, B. (1985). <i>About Science</i>. Oxford: Blackwell.</li>

<li>Barnes, B. (1987). 'Concept Application as Social Activity', Critica 19: 19–44.</li>

<li>Barnes, B. (1992). "Realism, relativism and finitism". Pp. 131–147 in <i>Cognitive Relativism and Social Science</i>, eds. D. Raven, L. van Vucht Tijssen, and J. de Wolf.</li>

<li>Barnes, B., D. Bloor, and J. Henry. (1996), <i>Scientific Knowledge: A Sociological Analysis</i>. University of Chicago Press. [An introduction and summary of strong sociology]</li>

<li>Bijker, Wiebe E., et al. <i>The social construction of technological systems: New directions in the sociology and history of technology</i> (MIT press, 2012)</li>

<li>Bloor, D. (1991 [1976]), <i>Knowledge and Social Imagery</i>, 2nd ed. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. [outlines the strong programme]</li>

<li>Bloor, D. (1997). <i>Wittgenstein, Rules and Institutions</i>. London: Routledge.</li>

<li>Bloor, D. (1999). "Anti-Latour," <i>Studies in the History and Philosophy of Science Part A</i> 20#1 pp: 81–112.</li>

<li>Collins, Harry, and Trevor Pinch. <i>The Golem at large: What you should know about technology</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2014)</li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061130125504/http://www.ensmp.fr/~latour/poparticles/poparticle/p075.html">Latour, B. (1999). "For David Bloor and Beyond ... a reply to David Bloor's 'Anti-Latour',"</a> <i>Studies in History & Philosophy of Science Part A</i> <b>30</b>(1): 113–129.</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/how-to-think-about-science-part-1-1.464989">Historical sociologist Simon Schaffer is interviewed on SSK</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cbc.ca/radio/ideas/how-to-think-about-science-part-16-1.464997">Historical sociologist Steven Shapin is interviewed on SSK</a></li>

<li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://acervodigital.ufpr.br/xmlui/bitstream/handle/1884/60904/R%20-%20T%20-%20DANIEL%20LASKOWSKI%20TOZZINI.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y">Strong Programme in Sociology of Knowledge and Actor-Network Theory: The Debate within Science Studies (includes questions posed to David Bloor and Bruno Latour, in Appendix)</a></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Science_and_technology_studies704" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Science_and_technology_studies" title="Science and technology studies">Science and technology studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Economics" title="Economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Languages_of_science" title="Languages of science">Languages of science</a>

<ul><li><a href="Scientific_language_(linguistic_classification)" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific language (linguistic classification)">Scientific language</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li>

<li><a href="Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li>

<li><a href="Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li>

<li><a href="Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li>

<li>Social

<ul><li><a href="Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a>

<ul><li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li>

</ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br>studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Academic_bias" title="Academic bias">Academic bias</a></li>

<li><a href="Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li>

<li><a href="Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li>

<li><a href="Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li>

<li><a href="Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li>

<li><a href="Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li>

<li><a href="Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a>

<ul><li><a href="Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li>

<li>Science

<ul><li><a href="Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li>

<li><a href="Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li>

<li><a href="Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li>

<li><a href="Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li>

<li><a href="Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li>

<li>Scientific

<ul><li><a href="Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientific_skepticism" title="Scientific skepticism">skepticism</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li>

<li><a href="Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a>

<ul><li><a href="Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br>studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li>

<li><a href="Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li>

<li><a href="Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Financial_technology" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li>

<li><a href="Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li>

<li><a href="Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li>

<li><a href="Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li>

<li><a href="Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li>

<li><a href="Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li>

<li><a href="Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li>

<li><a href="Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li>

<li><a href="Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li>

<li><a href="Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li>

<li><a href="Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li>

<li><a href="Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a>

<ul><li><a href="Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Technological

<ul><li><a href="Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Technology

<ul><li><a href="Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li>

<li><a href="Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li>

<li><a href="Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Academic_freedom" title="Academic freedom">Academic freedom</a></li>

<li><a href="Digital_divide" title="Digital divide">Digital divide</a></li>

<li><a href="Evidence-based_policy" title="Evidence-based policy">Evidence-based policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Factor_10" title="Factor 10">Factor 10</a></li>

<li><a href="Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Horizon_scanning" title="Horizon scanning">Horizon scanning</a></li>

<li><a href="Politicization_of_science" title="Politicization of science">Politicization of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Regulation_of_science" title="Regulation of science">Regulation of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Research_ethics" title="Research ethics">Research ethics</a></li>

<li><a href="Right_to_science_and_culture" title="Right to science and culture">Right to science</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_policy" title="Science policy">Science policy</a>

<ul><li><a href="History_of_science_policy" title="History of science policy">history of</a></li>

<li><a href="Science_of_science_policy" title="Science of science policy">science of</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Technology_assessment" title="Technology assessment">Technology assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Technology_policy" title="Technology policy">Technology policy</a></li>

<li><a href="Transition_management_(governance)" title="Transition management (governance)">Transition management</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> Portals

<ul><li><a href="Portal%3AScience" title="Portal:Science">Science</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3AHistory_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">History of science</a></li>

<li><a href="Portal%3ATechnology" title="Portal:Technology">Technology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category

<ul><li>Associations</li>

<li>Journals</li>

<li>Scholars</li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-05-22" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Strong_programme&oldid=1291578828">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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